Like mainstream Indian popular cinema, Indian Parallel Cinema was influenced by a combination of Indian theatre and Indian literature (such as Bengali literature and Urdu poetry), but differs when it comes to foreign influences, where it is influenced more by European cinema (particularly Italian neorealism and French poetic realism) than by Hollywood. Ray cited Vittorio De Sica's Bicycle Thieves (1948) and Jean Renoir's The River (1951), on which he assisted, as influences on his debut film Pather Panchali (1955).
Influence of cinema of India
During colonial rule Indians bought film equipment from Europe.[39] The British funded wartime propaganda films during World War II, some of which showed the Indian army pitted against the Axis powers, specifically the Empire of Japan, which had managed to infiltrate India.
[171] One such story was Burma Rani, which depicted civilian resistance to Japanese occupation by British and Indian forces in Myanmar.[171] Pre-independence businessmen such as J. F. Madan and Abdulally Esoofally traded in global cinema.[34]
Early Indian films made early inroads into the Soviet Union, Middle East, Southeast Asia[172] and China. Mainstream Indian movie stars gained international fame across Asia[173][174][175] and Eastern Europe.[176][177] For example, Indian films were more popular in the Soviet Union than Hollywood films[178][179] and occasionally domestic Soviet films.
180] From 1954 to 1991, 206 Indian films were sent to the Soviet Union, drawing higher average audience figures than domestic Soviet productions,[179][181] Films such as Awaara and Disco Dancer drew more than 60 million viewers.[182][183] Films such as Awaara, 3 Idiots and Dangal,[184][185] were one of the 20 highest-grossing films in China.[186]
Indian films frequently appeared in international fora and film festivals.[172] This allowed Parallel Bengali filmmakers to achieve worldwide fame.[187]
Many Asian and South Asian countries increasingly found Indian cinema as more suited to their sensibilities than Western cinema.[172] Jigna Desai holds that by the 21st century, Indian cinema had become 'deterritorialised', spreading to parts of the world where Indian expatriatres were present in significant numbers, and had become an alternative to other international cinema.[188]
Indian cinema more recently began influencing Western musical films, and played a particularly instrumental role in the revival of the genre in the Western world. Ray's work had a worldwide impact, with filmmakers such as Martin Scorsese,[189] James Ivory,[190] Abbas Kiarostami, François Truffaut,[191] Carlos Saura,[192] Isao Takahata and Gregory Nava[193] citing his influence, and others such as Akira Kurosawa praising his work.
[194] The "youthful coming-of-age dramas that have flooded art houses since the mid-fifties owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy".[78] Since the 1980s, overlooked Indian filmmakers such as Ghatak[195] and Dutt[196] posthumously gained international acclaim.
Baz Luhrmann stated that his successful musical film Moulin Rouge! (2001) was directly inspired by Bollywood musicals.[197] That film's success renewed interest in the then-moribund Western musical genre, subsequently fuelling a renaissance.[198] Danny Boyle's Oscar-winning film Slumdog Millionaire (2008) was directly inspired by Indian films,[115][199] and is considered to be an "homage to Hindi commercial cinema".[200]
Indian cinema has been recognised repeatedly at the Academy Awards. Indian films Mother India (1957), Salaam Bombay! (1988) and Lagaan (2001), were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Indian Oscar winners include Bhanu Athaiya (costume designer), Ray (filmmaker), A. R. Rahman (music composer), Resul Pookutty (sound editor) and Gulzar (lyricist), Cottalango Leon and Rahul Thakkar Sci-Tech Award.[201]
Genres and styles
Further information: Mumbai underworld film and Dacoit film
Masala film
Main article: Masala (film genre)
Masala is a style of Indian cinema that mix genres in one work, especially in Bollywood, West Bengal and South India. For example, one film can portray action, comedy, drama, romance and melodrama. These films tend to be musicals, with songs filmed in picturesque locations. Plots for such movies may seem illogical and improbable to unfamiliar viewers. The genre is named after masala, a mixture of spices in Indian cuisine.
Parallel cinema
Main article: Parallel Cinema
Parallel Cinema, is also known as Art Cinema or the Indian New Wave, is known for its realism and naturalism, addressing the sociopolitical climate. This movement is distinct from mainstream Bollywood cinema and began around the same time as the French and Japanese New Waves. The movement began in Bengal (led by Ray, Sen and Ghatak) and then gained prominence in other regions. The movement was launched by Roy's Do Bigha Zamin (1953), which was both a commercial and critical success, winning the International Prize at the 1954 Cannes Film Festival.[75][76][202] Ray's films include The Apu Trilogy. Its three films won major prizes at the Cannes, Berlin and Venice Film Festivals, and are frequently listed among the greatest films of all time.[203][204][205][206]
Other neo-realist filmmakers were Shyam Benegal, Karun, Gopalakrishnan[69] and Kasaravalli.[207]
Multilingual
Some Indian films are known as "multilinguals", filmed in similar but non-identical versions in different languages. This was done in the 1930s. According to Rajadhyaksha and Willemen in the Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema (1994), in its most precise form, a multilingual is
a bilingual or a trilingual [that] was the kind of film made in the 1930s in the studio era, when different but identical takes were made of every shot in different languages, often with different leading stars but identical technical crew and music.[208]:15
Rajadhyaksha and Willemen note that in seeking to construct their Encyclopedia, they often found it "extremely difficult to distinguish multilinguals in this original sense from dubbed versions, remakes, reissues or, in some cases, the same film listed with different titles, presented as separate versions in different languages ... it will take years of scholarly work to establish definitive data in this respect".[208]:15
Music
See also: Filmi
Music is a substantial revenue generator, with music rights alone accounting for 4–5% of net revenues.[15] The major film music companies are Saregama, T-Series, Sony Music and Zee Music Company.[15] Film music accounts for 48% of net music sales.[15] A typical film may feature 5–6 choreographed songs.[209]
The demands of a multicultural, increasingly globalised Indian audience led to a mixing of local and international musical traditions.[209] Local dance and music remain a recurring theme in India and followed the Indian diaspora.[209] Playback singers such as Mohammad Rafi, Kishore Kumar, Lata Mangeshkar,K. J. Yesudas, Asha Bhosle,K. S. Chitra, Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan and S. P. Balasubrahmanyam drew crowds to film music stage shows.[209] In the 21st century interaction increased between Indian artists and others.[210]
Film location
In filmmaking, a location is any place where acting and dialogue are recorded. Sites where filming without dialogue takes place is termed a second unit photography site. Filmmakers often choose to shoot on location because they believe that greater realism can be achieved in a "real" place. Location shooting is often motivated by budget considerations.
The most popular locations are the main cities for each regional industry. Other locations include Manali and Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, Srinagar and Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir, Darjeeling in West Bengal, Lucknow, Agra and Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, Ooty in Tamil Nadu, Amritsar in Punjab, Udaipur, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Jaipur in Rajasthan, Delhi, Kerala and Goa.[211][212]
Prodction ucopaiesmn
Main article: List of film production companies in India
More than 1000 production organisations operate in the Indian film industry, but few are successful. AVM Productions is the oldest surviving studio in India. Other major production houses include Yash Raj Films, T-series, Red Chillies Entertainment, Dharma Productions, Eros International, Ajay Devgn FFilms, Balaji Motion Pictures, UTV Motion Pictures, Raaj Kamal Films International, Wunderbar Films, Aashirvad Cinemas Indian Movies Limited and Geetha Arts.[213]
Cinema by language
Films are made in many cities and regions in India including Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu, Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Konkan (Goa), Kerala, Maharashtra, Manipur, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Tripura and Mizoram.
Etymology
"Bollywood" is a portmanteau derived from Bombay (the former name for Mumbai) and Hollywood, California, the centre of the American film industry.[23] Unlike Hollywood, Bollywood is not a physical place; its name is criticised by some film journalists and critics, who believe it implies that the industry is a poor cousin of Hollywood.[23][24]
According to OxfordDictionaries.com, the word "Bollywood" originated during the 1970s,[25] when Indian cinema overtook Hollywood in film production. A number of journalists have been credited by newspapers with coining the word.[26] According to a 2004 article in The Hindu, journalist Bevinda Collaco coined the word;[27] a Telegraph article the following year report that Amit Khanna was its creator.[28]
According to Madhava Prasad, author of Surviving Bollywood, the term "Bollywood" was preceded by "Tollywood", which then referred to the cinema of West Bengal. The Bengali film industry, based in Tollygunge, Calcutta, was referred to as "Tollywood" in a 1932 American Cinematographer article.[29]
History
It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled History of Indian cinema. (Discuss) (April 2019)
Early history (1890s–1940s)
In 1897, a film presentation by Professor Stevenson featured a stage show at Calcutta's Star Theatre. With Stevenson's encouragement and camera, Hiralal Sen, an Indian photographer, made a film of scenes from that show, The Flower of Persia (1898).[30] The Wrestlers (1899) by H. S. Bhatavdekar showed a wrestling match at the Hanging Gardens in Bombay.[31]
Dadasaheb Phalke, examining a strip of film
Dadasaheb Phalke is considered the father of Indian cinema, including Bollywood.[32][33][34]
Dadasaheb Phalke's silent Raja Harishchandra (1913) is the first feature film made in India. By the 1930s, the industry was producing over 200 films per year.[35] The first Indian sound film, Ardeshir Irani's Alam Ara (1931), was commercially successful.[36] With a great demand for talkies and musicals, Bollywood and the other regional film industries quickly switched to sound films.
The 1930s and 1940s were tumultuous times; India was buffeted by the Great Depression, World War II, the Indian independence movement, and the violence of the Partition. Although most Bollywood films were unabashedly escapist, a number of filmmakers tackled tough social issues or used the struggle for Indian independence as a backdrop for their films.[35] Irani made the first Hindi colour film, Kisan Kanya, in 1937. The following year, he made a colour version of Mother India. However, colour did not become a popular feature until the late 1950s. At this time, lavish romantic musicals and melodramas were cinematic staples.
Before the 1947 partition of India, which divided the country into the Republic of India and Pakistan, the Bombay film industry (now called Bollywood) was closely linked to the Lahore film industry (now the Lollywood industry of Pakistani cinema); both produced films in Hindustani, the lingua franca of northern and central India.[37] Another centre of Hindustani film production was the Bengali film industry in Calcutta, Bengal Presidency (now Kolkata, West Bengal), which produced Hindustani films and local Bengali language films.[38][39]
Many actors, filmmakers and musicians from the Lahore industry migrated to the Bombay industry during the 1940s, including actors K. L. Saigal, Prithviraj Kapoor, Dilip Kumar and Dev Anand; playback singers Mohammed Rafi, Noorjahan, and Shamshad Begum. Around the same time, filmmakers and actors from the Calcutta film industry began migrating to Bombay; as a result, Bombay became the center of Hindustani film production in the Republic of India after partition. During this time period, actors such as Shantaram, Paidi Jairaj, and Motilal have made their mark.
Golden Age (late 1940s–1960s)
The period from the late 1940s to the early 1960s, after India's independence, is regarded by film historians as the Golden Age of Hindi cinema.[40][41][42] Some of the most critically acclaimed Hindi films of all time were produced during this time. Examples include Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959), directed by Guru Dutt and written by Abrar Alvi; Awaara (1951) and Shree 420 (1955), directed by Raj Kapoor and written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, and Aan (1952), directed by Mehboob Khan and starring Dilip Kumar. The films explored social themes, primarily dealing with working-class life in India (particularly urban life) in the first two examples. Awaara presented the city as both nightmare and dream, and Pyaasa critiqued the unreality of urban life.[43]
Mehboob Khan's Mother India (1957), a remake of his earlier Aurat (1940), was the first Indian film nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film; it lost by a single vote.[44] Mother India defined conventional Hindi cinema for decades.[45][46][47] It spawned a genre of dacoit films, in turn defined by Gunga Jumna (1961).[48] Written and produced by Dilip Kumar, Gunga Jumna was a dacoit crime drama about two brothers on opposite sides of the law (a theme which became common in Indian films during the 1970s).[49] Some of the best-known epic films of Hindi cinema were also produced at this time, such as K. Asif's Mughal-e-Azam (1960).[50] Other acclaimed mainstream Hindi filmmakers during this period included Kamal Amrohi and Vijay Bhatt.
Two men and a woman, leaning against one of the men
Nargis, Raj Kapoor and Dilip Kumar in Andaz (1949). Kapoor and Kumar are among the greatest and most influential movie stars in the history of Indian cinema,[51][52] and Nargis is one of its greatest actresses.[53]
The three most popular male Indian actors of the 1950s and 1960s were Dilip Kumar, Raj Kapoor, and Dev Anand, each with a unique acting style. Kapoor adopted Charlie Chaplin's tramp; Anand modeled himself on suave Hollywood stars like Gregory Peck and Cary Grant, and Kumar pioneered a form of method acting which predated Hollywood method actors such as Marlon Brando.
Kumar, who was described as "the ultimate method actor" by Satyajit Ray, inspired future generations of Indian actors. Much like Brando's influence on Robert De Niro and Al Pacino, Kumar had a similar influence on Amitabh Bachchan, Naseeruddin Shah, Shah Rukh Khan and Nawazuddin Siddiqui.[51][52] Veteran actresses such as Suraiya, Nargis, Sumitra Devi, Madhubala, Meena Kumari, Waheeda Rehman, Nutan, Sadhana, Mala Sinha and Vyjayanthimala have had their share of influence on Hindi cinema.[54]
While commercial Hindi cinema was thriving, the 1950s also saw the emergence of a parallel cinema movement.[43] Although the movement (emphasising social realism) was led by Bengali cinema, it also began gaining prominence in Hindi cinema. Early examples of parallel cinema include Dharti Ke Lal (1946), directed by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas and based on the Bengal famine of 1943,;[55] Neecha Nagar (1946) directed by Chetan Anand and written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas,[56] and Bimal Roy's Do Bigha Zamin (1953).
Their critical acclaim and the latter's commercial success paved the way for Indian neorealism[57] and the Indian New Wave (synonymous with parallel cinema).[58] Internationally acclaimed Hindi filmmakers involved in the movement included Mani Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani, Shyam Benegal, and Vijaya Mehta.[43]
A smiling Rajesh Khanna
Rajesh Khanna in 2010. The first Indian actor to be called a "superstar", he starred in 15 consecutive hit films from 1969 to 1971.
After the social-realist film Neecha Nagar received the Palme d'Or at the inaugural 1946 Cannes Film Festival,[56] Hindi films were frequently in competition for Cannes' top prize during the 1950s and early 1960s and some won major prizes at the festival.[59] Guru Dutt, overlooked during his lifetime, received belated international recognition during the 1980s.[59][60] Film critics polled by the British magazine Sight & Sound included several of Dutt's films in a 2002 list of greatest films,[61] and Time's All-Time 100 Movies lists Pyaasa as one of the greatest films of all time.[62]
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, the industry was dominated by musical romance films with romantic-hero leads.[63]
Classic Bollywood (1970s–1980s)
A bespectacled Salim Khan
A serious-looking Javed Akhtar
The Salim-Javed screenwriting duo, consisting of Salim Khan (left) and Javed Akhtar, revolutionized Indian cinema in the 1970s[64] and are considered Bollywood's greatest screenwriters.[22]
By 1970, Hindi cinema was thematically stagnant[65] and dominated by musical romance films.[63] The arrival of screenwriting duo Salim-Javed (Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar) was a paradigm shift, revitalising the industry.[65] They began the genre of gritty, violent, Bombay underworld crime films early in the decade with films such as Zanjeer (1973) and Deewaar (1975).
[66][67] Salim-Javed reinterpreted the rural themes of Mehboob Khan's Mother India (1957) and Dilip Kumar's Gunga Jumna (1961) in a contemporary urban context, reflecting the socio-economic and socio-political climate of 1970s India[65][68] and channeling mass discontent, disillusionment[65] and the unprecedented growth of slums[69] with anti-establishment themes and those involving urban poverty, corruption and crime
[70][71] Their "angry young man", personified by Amitabh Bachchan,[71] reinterpreted Dilip Kumar's performance in Gunga Jumna in a contemporary urban context[65][68] and anguished urban poor.[69]
By the mid-1970s, romantic confections had given way to gritty, violent crime films and action films about gangsters (the Bombay underworld) and bandits (dacoits). Salim-Javed's writing and Amitabh Bachchan's acting popularised the trend with films such as Zanjeer and (particularly) Deewaar, a crime film inspired by Gunga Jumna[49] which pitted "a policeman against his brother, a gang leader based on real-life smuggler Haji Mastan" (Bachchan);
according to Danny Boyle, Deewaar was "absolutely key to Indian cinema".[72] In addition to Bachchan, several other actors followed by riding the crest of the trend (which lasted into the early 1990s).[73] Actresses from the era include Hema Malini, Jaya Bachchan, Raakhee, Shabana Azmi, Zeenat Aman, Parveen Babi, Rekha, Dimple Kapadia, Smita Patil, Jaya Prada and Padmini Kolhapure.[54]
A smiling, bearded Amitabh Bachchan
Amitabh Bachchan in 2014. The most successful Indian actor in the 1970s and 1980s, he is considered one of India's greatest and most influential movie stars.[74][75][76][77][78]
The name "Bollywood" was coined during the 1970s,[26][27] when the conventions of commercial Bollywood films were defined.[79] Key to this was the masala film, which combines a number of genres (action, comedy, romance, drama, melodrama, and musical). The masala film was pioneered early in the decade by filmmaker Nasir Hussain,
[21] and the Salim-Javed screenwriting duo,[79] pioneering the Bollywood-blockbuster format.[79] Yaadon Ki Baarat (1973), directed by Hussain and written by Salim-Javed, has been identified as the first masala film and the first quintessentially Bollywood film.[79][80] Salim-Javed wrote more successful masala films during the 1970s and 1980s.[79] Masala films made Amitabh Bachchan the biggest Bollywood star of the period. A landmark of the genre was Amar Akbar Anthony (1977),[80][81] directed by Manmohan Desai and written by Kader Khan, and Desai continued successfully exploiting the genre.
Both genres (masala and violent-crime films) are represented by the blockbuster Sholay (1975), written by Salim-Javed and starring Amitabh Bachchan. It combined the dacoit film conventions of Mother India and Gunga Jumna with spaghetti Westerns, spawning the Dacoit Western (also known as the curry Western) which was popular during the 1970s.[48]
Some Hindi filmmakers, such as Shyam Benegal, Mani Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani and Vijaya Mehta, continued to produce realistic parallel cinema throughout the 1970s.[43][82] Although the art film bent of the Film Finance Corporation was criticised during a 1976 Committee on Public Undertakings investigation which accused the corporation of not doing enough to encourage commercial cinema, the decade saw the rise of commercial cinema with films such as Sholay (1975) which consolidated Amitabh Bachchan's position as a star. The devotional classic Jai Santoshi Ma was also released that year.[83]
By 1983, the Bombay film industry was generating an estimated annual revenue of ?700 crore (? 7 billion,[84] $693.14 million),[85] equivalent to $1.78 billion (?11,133 crore, ? 111.33 billion) when adjusted for inflation. By 1986, India's annual film output had increased from 741 films produced annually to 833 films annually, making India the world's largest film producer.[86] The most internationally acclaimed Hindi film of the 1980s was Mira Nair's Salaam Bombay! (1988), which won the Camera d'Or at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
New Bollywood (1990s–present)
Shah Rukh Khan, one of the "Three Khans", in 2012. He was the most successful Indian actor for most of the 1990s and 2000s[87]
Aamir Khan, one of the "Three Khans", in 2008. He has been the most successful Indian actor since the late 2000s.[87]
Ajay Devgn, Rohit Shetty on the sets of 'Jhalak Dikhhlaa Jaa 5'. One of the first film for which they collaborated was Golmaal: Fun Unlimited (2006).
Hindi cinema experienced another period of stagnation during the late 1980s with a box-office decline due to increasing violence, a decline in musical quality, and a rise in video piracy.
One of the turning points came with such films as Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988), presenting a blend of youthfulness, family entertainment, emotional intelligence and strong melodies, all of which lured audiences back to the big screen.[88][89] It brought back the template for Bollywood musical romance films which went on to define 1990s Hindi cinema.[89]
Known since the 1990s as "New Bollywood",[90] contemporary Bollywood is linked to economic liberalization in India during the early 1990s.[91] Early in the decade, the pendulum swung back toward family-centered romantic musicals. Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988) was followed by blockbusters such as Maine Pyar Kiya (1989), Hum Aapke Hain Kaun (1994), Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (1995), Raja Hindustani (1996), Dil To Pagal Hai (1997) and Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998), introducing a new generation of popular actors, including the three Khans:
Aamir Khan, Shah Rukh Khan, and Salman Khan,[92][93] who have starred in most of the top ten highest-grossing Bollywood films. The Khans and have had successful careers since the late 1980s and early 1990s,[92] and have dominated the Indian box office for three decades.[94][95] Shah Rukh Khan was the most successful Indian actor for most of the 1990s and 2000s, and Aamir Khan has been the most successful Indian actor since the mid 2000s.[54][87] Action and comedy films, starring such actors as Akshay Kumar and Govinda.[96][97]
The decade marked the entrance of new performers in art and independent films, some of which were commercially successful. The most influential example was Satya (1998), directed by Ram Gopal Varma and written by Anurag Kashyap. Its critical and commercial success led to the emergence of a genre known as Mumbai noir:[98] urban films reflecting the city's social problems.[99] This led to a resurgence of parallel cinema by the end of the decade.[98] The films featured actors whose performances were often praised by critics.
Salman Khan walking hand-in-hand with a group of colourfully-dressed actresses
Salman Khan, one of the Three Khans, with Bollywood actresses (from left) Kareena Kapoor, Rani Mukerji, Preity Zinta, Katrina Kaif, Karisma Kapoor and Priyanka Chopra in Mumbai (2010)
The 2000s saw increased Bollywood recognition worldwide due to growing (and prospering) NRI and Desi communities overseas. The growth of the Indian economy and a demand for quality entertainment in this era led the country's film industry to new heights in production values, cinematography and screenwriting as well as technical advances in areas such as special effects and animation.[100] Some of the largest production houses,
among them Yash Raj Films and Dharma Productions were the producers of new modern films.[100] Some popular films of the decade were Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai (2000), Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001), Gadar: Ek Prem Katha (2001), Lagaan (2001), Koi... Mil Gaya (2003), Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003), Veer-Zaara (2004), Rang De Basanti (2006), Lage Raho Munna Bhai (2006), Dhoom 2 (2006), Krrish (2006), and Jab We Met (2007), among others, showing the rise of new movie stars.
During the 2010s, the industry saw established stars such as making big-budget masala films like Dabangg (2010), Singham (2011), Ek Tha Tiger (2012), Son of Sardaar (2012), Rowdy Rathore (2012), Chennai Express (2013), Kick (2014) and Happy New Year (2014) with much-younger actresses. Although the films were often not praised by critics, they were commercially successful. Some of the films starring Aamir Khan have been credited with redefining and modernising the masala film with a distinct brand of socially conscious cinema.[101][102]
Most stars from the 2000s continued successful careers into the next decade, and the 2010s saw a new generation of popular actors in different films. Among new conventions, female-centred films such as The Dirty Picture (2011), Kahaani (2012), and Queen (2014), Parched (2015), Pink (2016) started gaining wide financial success.
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